misspelledsearch.com:

photographic software

information page

If you cannot find the information you are searching for on this page, we suggest searching Google with the correct spelling "photographic software":

Photography is the process of making pictures by means of the action of light. It involves recording light patterns, as reflected from objects, onto a sensitive medium through a timed exposure. The process is done through mechanical, chemical or digital devices commonly known as cameras.

The word comes from the Greek words φως phos ("light"), and γραφις graphis ("stylus", "paintbrush") or γραφη graphê, together meaning "drawing with light" or "representation by means of lines" or "drawing." Traditionally, the product of photography has been called a photograph. The term photo is a convenient abbreviation. Many people also call them pictures. In digital photography, the term image has begun to replace photograph. This term is neither more nor less correct than photograph, either in film or digital photography. (The term image is traditional in geometric optics.)

Photographic image-forming devices

Most commonly a camera or camera obscura is the image forming device and photographic film or a digital storage card is the recording medium, although other methods are available. For instance, the photocopy or xerography machine forms permanent images but uses the transfer of static electrical charges rather than photographic film, hence the term electrophotography. The rayographs published by Man Ray in 1922 are images produced by the shadows of objects cast on the photographic paper, without the use of a camera. And one can place objects directly on the glass of a scanner to produce pictures electronically.

Photographers control the camera to expose the light recording material (usually film or a charge-coupled device) to light. After processing, this produces an image whose contents are acceptably sharp, bright and composed to achieve the objective of taking the photograph.

The controls include:

• Focus
• Aperture of the lens
• Duration of exposure (or shutter speed)
• Focal length of the lens (telephoto, macro, wide angle, or zoom)
• Sensitivity of the medium to light intensity and color/wavelength
• Filters, scrims, or other special effects that may be placed between the subject and the light recording material, either in front of or behind the lens
• The nature of the light recording material itself, for example, its resolution as measured in pixels or "grains" of silver halide

The controls are inter-related, as the total amount of light reaching the film plane (the "exposure") changes proportionately with the duration of exposure, aperture of the lens, and focal length of the lens (which changes as the lens is focused, or if it is "zoomed"). Changing any of these will, therefore, alter the exposure. Many lenses will automatically adjust the aperture to account for changes in focus, and some will do so for changes in zoom as well.

The duration of an exposure is referred to as the "shutter speed," often even in cameras that don't have a physical shutter, and is typically measured in fractions of a second. The aperture is expressed by an f-number or f-stop, which is proportional to the ratio of the focal length to the diameter of the aperture. If the f-number is decreased by a factor of , the aperture diameter is increased by the same factor, and its area is increased by a factor of 2. The f-stops that might be found on a typical lens include 2.8, 4, 5.6, 8, 11, 16, 22, 32, where going up "one stop" doubles the amount of light reaching the film, and "stopping down" one stop halves the amount of light.

In order to achieve a given exposure, various combinations of shutter speed and aperture could be used. For example, f/8 at 1/125th of a second and f/4 at 1/500th of a second yield the same amount of light. However, the combination chosen impacts the final result. In addition to the subject or camera movement that might vary depending on the shutter speed, the aperture (and focal length of the lens) determine the "depth of field," which refers to the range of distances from the lens that will be considered in acceptable focus. For example, using a long lens and a large aperture, such as might be used with a large format camera, a subject's eyes might be in sharp focus while the tip of his nose is noticeably blurred. If the aperture is made smaller, or a shorter lens is used, then both the subject's eyes and nose can be brought into focus at the same time. If a very small aperture is used, such as a pinhole, then a very wide range of distance can be brought into focus at once.

Finally, image capture is only half of the image forming process. Regardless of the light recording material used, some sort of process or processes must be employed to render the "latent image" captured by the camera into the final photographic work. In addition to the camera controls, the processing variables have a significant impact on the final result.

Uses of photography

Photography can be classified under imaging technology and has gained the interest of scientists and artists from its inception. Scientists have used its capacity to make accurate recordings, such as Eadweard Muybridge in his study of human and animal locomotion (1887). Artists have been equally interested by this aspect but have also tried to explore other avenues than the photo-mechanical representation of reality, such as the pictorialist movement. Military, police and security forces use photography for surveillance, recognition and data storage.

History of photography

Invention

Main article: History of the camera

Chemical photography

Projecting images onto surfaces has been done for centuries. The camera obscura and the camera lucida were used by artists to trace scenes as early as the 16th century. These early cameras did not fix an image in time; they only projected what was before an opening in the wall of a darkened room onto a surface. In effect, the entire room was turned into a large pinhole camera. Indeed, the phrase camera obscura literally means "darkened room," and it is after these darkened rooms that all modern cameras have been named.

The first photograph is considered to be an image produced in 1826 by the French inventor Nicéphore Niépce on a polished pewter plate covered with a petroleum derivative called bitumen of Judea. It was produced with a camera, and required an eight hour exposure in bright sunshine. However, this process turned out to be a dead end and Niépce began experimenting with silver compounds based on a Johann Heinrich Schultz discovery in 1724 that a silver and chalk mixture darkens when exposed to light.

Niépce, in Chalon-sur-Saône, and the artist Jacques Daguerre, in Paris, refined the existing silver process in a partnership. In 1833 Niépce died unexpectedly of a stroke, leaving his notes to Daguerre. While he had no scientific background, Daguerre made two pivotal contributions to the process. He discovered that by exposing the silver firstly to iodine vapour, before exposure to light, and then to mercury fumes after the photograph was taken, a latent image could be formed and made visible. By then bathing the plate in a salt bath the image could be fixed. In 1839 Daguerre announced that he had invented a process using silver on a copper plate called the Daguerreotype. A similar process is still used today for Polaroids®. The French government bought the patent and immediately made it public domain.

Across the English Channel, William Fox Talbot had earlier discovered another means to fix a silver process image but had kept it secret. After reading about Daguerre's invention, Talbot refined his process, so that it might be fast enough to take photographs of people as Daguerre had done, and by 1840 he had invented the calotype process. He coated paper sheets with silver chloride to create an intermediate negative image. Unlike a daguerreotype, a calotype negative could be used to reproduce positive prints, like most chemical films do today. Talbot patented this process, which greatly limited its adoption. He spent the rest of his life in lawsuits defending the patent until he gave up on photography altogether. But later this process was refined by George Eastman and is today the basic technology used by chemical film cameras. Hippolyte Bayard also developed a method of photography, but delayed announcing it and so was not recognized as its inventor.

In 1851 Frederick Scott Archer invented the collodion process. It was the process used by Lewis Carrol.

Slovene Janez Puhar invented the technical procedure for making photographs on glass in 1841. Invention was recognized on July 17th 1852, in Paris by Acadůmie nationale agricole, manufacturière et commerciale.

Reference

• Coe, Brian. The Birth of Photography. Ash & Grant, 1976.

Social history

Popularization

The Daguerreotype proved popular as it responded to the demand for portraiture emerging from the middle classes during the Industrial Revolution. This demand, that could not be met in volume and in cost by oil painting, may well have been the push for the development of photography. But still daguerreotypes, while beautiful, were fragile and difficult to copy. A single photograph taken in a portrait studio could cost $1000 in 2006 dollars. Photographers also encouraged chemists to refine the process of making many copies cheaply, which eventually lead them back to Talbot's process. Ultimately, the modern photographic process came about from a series of refinements and improvements in the first 20 years. In 1884 George Eastman, of Rochester, New York, developed dry gel on paper, or film, to replace the photographic plate, so that a photographer no longer needed to carry boxes of plates and toxic chemicals around. In July of 1888 Eastman's Kodak camera went on the market with the slogan "You press the button, we do the rest". Now anyone could take a photograph and leave the dangerous portions of the process to others. Photography became available for the mass-market in 1901 with the introduction of Kodak Brownie. Very little has changed in chemical photography since then, though color film has become the standard, as well as automatic focus and automatic exposure. Digital recording of images is becoming increasingly prevalent, as digital cameras allow instant previews on LCD screens among other benefits, and the resolution of top of the range models has exceeded high quality 35mm film while lower resolution models have become affordable. For the enthusiast photographer processing black and white film, little has changed since the introduction of the 35mm film Leica camera in 1925.

Economic history

In the nineteenth century, photography developed rapidly as a commercial service. In the U.S. in 1890, the number of professional photographers was about the same as the number of accountants, artists, and dentists, respectively, and about ten times greater than the number of authors. End-user supplies of photographic equipment accounted for only about 20% of industry revenue.

Several trends characterize the photographic industry from the end of the nineteenth century to the end of the twentieth century. The ratio of revenue from end-user photographic supplies to revenue from professional services rose by an order of magnitude. The prevalence of personal cameras and the ratio of end-user photographs rose closely in tandem with the prevalence of telephone and the telephone conversation minutes. However, the ratio of photographic industry revenue to telephone industry revenue dropped sharply.[1]

Given the development of new digital technologies for creating and sharing images, and of new communications devices, e.g. camera phones, understanding the economics of image use are becoming increasingly important for understanding the evolution of the communications industry as a whole.

Resources

Jenkins, Reese V. Images & Enterprise: Technology and the American Photographic Industry 1839-1925. Baltimore, The Johns Hopkins University Press, 1975. The book provides a fine overview of the economics of photography and is especially strong on the growth and development of the Eastman Kodak Company.

Photography types

Color photography

Main article: color photography

Color photography was explored throughout the 1800s. Initial experiments in color could not fix the photograph and prevent the color from fading. The first permanent color photo was taken in 1861 by the physicist James Clerk Maxwell.

One of the early methods of taking color photos was to use three cameras. Each camera would have a color filter in front of the lens. This technique provides the photographer with the three basic channels required to recreate a color image in a darkroom or processing plant. Russian photographer Sergei Mikhailovich Prokudin-Gorskii developed another technique, with three color plates taken in quick succession.

Practical application of the technique was held back by the very limited color response of early film; however, in the early 1900s, following the work of photo-chemists such as H. W. Vogel, emulsions with adequate sensitivity to green and red light at last became available.

The first color film, Autochrome, invented by the French Lumière brothers, reached the market in 1907. It was based on a 'screen-plate' filter made of dyed dots of potato starch, and was the only color film on the market until German Agfa introduced the similar Agfacolor in 1932. In 1935, American Kodak introduced the first modern ('integrated tri-pack') color film, Kodachrome, based on three colored emulsions. This was followed in 1936 by Agfa's Agfacolor Neue. Unlike the Kodachrome tri-pack process, the colour couplers in Agfacolor Neue were integral with the emulsion layers, which greatly simplified the film processing. Most modern color films, except Kodachrome, are based on the Agfacolor Neue technology. Instant color film was introduced by Polaroid in 1963.

Color photography may form images as a positive transparency, intended for use in a slide projector or as color negatives, intended for use in creating positive color enlargements on specially coated paper. The latter is now the most common form of film (non-digital) color photography, owing to the introduction of automated photoprinting equipment.

Digital photography

Main article: Digital photography

Traditional photography was a considerable burden for photographers working at remote locations (such as press correspondents) without access to processing facilities. With increased competition from television, there was pressure to deliver their images to newspapers with greater speed. Photo-journalists at remote locations would carry a miniature photo lab with them, and some means of transmitting their images down the telephone line. In 1981, Sony unveiled the first consumer camera to use a CCD for imaging, and which required no film -- the Sony Mavica. While the Mavica did save images to disk, the images themselves were displayed on television, and therefore the camera could not be considered fully digital. In 1990, Kodak unveiled the DCS 100, the first commercially available digital camera. Its cost precluded any use other than photojournalism and professional applications, but commercial digital photography was born.

Digital photography uses an electronic sensor such as a charge-coupled device to record the image as a piece of electronic data rather than as chemical changes on film. Some other devices, such as cell phones, now include digital photography features.

Although not viewed by all photographers as true photography, digital photography in fact meets all requirements to be called such. Even though there are no chemical processes, a digital camera captures a frame of whatever it happens to be pointed at, which can be viewed later. In 10 years, digital point and shoot cameras have become widespread consumer products. These digital cameras now outsell similar film cameras, and many include features not found in film cameras such as the ability to shoot video and record audio.

Kodak announced in January 2004 that it would no longer produce reloadable 35mm cameras after the end of that year. This was interpreted as a sign of the end of film photography. However, Kodak was at that time a minor actor on the reloadable film cameras market. In January 2006 Nikon followed suit and announced that they will stop the production of all but two models of their film cameras, they will continue to produce the low-end Nikon FM10, and the high-end Nikon F6. The price of 35mm and APS compact cameras have dropped, probably due to direct competition from digital and the resulting growth of the offer of second-hand film cameras.

Digital versus film

Film photography is anticipated to endure for some time, as dedicated amateurs and skilled artists often prefer the use of traditional and familiar materials and techniques. The comparison of resolution between film and digital photography is complex. While the resolution of commercial 35 mm color film is estimated to be 19 megapixel, this measure may be misleading. When considered in the context of film and lens in a camera, typical film achieves a resolution of about 40 line pairs per mm, or 80 dots per mm. This is equivalent of about 5.5 megapixels in the image of 35 mm film. In contrast to that, advertised pixel counts on digital cameras do not account for the actual number of pixels used to store the image, nor the effect of the Bayer pattern of sensor filters on the digital sensor, nor the image processing algorithm used to interpolate sensor pixels to image pixels. In addition, digital sensors are generally arranged in a rectangular pattern, making images susceptible to moire pattern artifacts, whereas film is immune to such effects due to the random orientation of grains.

The resolution of modern black and white slow speed film, exposed through a high quality prime lens working at its optimum aperture yields usable detail at a scanned file size of greater than 30 megapixels, with consumer 35mm color negative film an effective resolution of over 12 megapixels is achievable and in an inexpensive 35mm point and shoot camera a resolution of over 8 megapixels may be achieved. Film also offers ease of processing with drop off services for processing available in many locations, in contrast to digital photography where the process of printing can require the time and effort of the user in areas where commercial digital to print services are not yet readily available. A market of online printing of digital images has developed in response to this demand.

One major advantage of Digital photography is the ability to manipulate images given access to a personal computer. Software bundled with nearly all digital cameras today allows the user to modify the characteristics of the recorded image to produce a more desirable final image. More sophisticated users may choose to manipulate or alter the actual content of the recorded image. (See Photoshopping.) Another important advantage is the ability to evaluate a shot in real time, to decide if you wish to take another shot of the subject, in a different manner or with different settings. Images that are not appealing may be erased, freeing up storage space.

Nonetheless film still has advantages over digital, at least with current technology. One of the main advantages is its latitude, that is, the ability to produce a good image from over or under exposed negatives. Digital images which are slightly overexposed can lose all data in the highlights, and underexposed digital will lose significant shadow detail. Film, on the other hand, can be greatly over or underexposed and still be able to produce a normal image. This is particularly true with black and white film.

One useful approach to deciding between a film or digital camera is to consider the ultimate medium of display for your photographs. If your pictures are for display on computer or television screens, small format prints such as snapshot or 8x10" photo paper, then the resolution provided by a 5 to 9 megapixal digital camera may be adequate. If your final medium is magazine or poster images, or slides for projection, then you may need the resolution provided by film in order to get a satisfying product. Lower resolution images will look soft and/or noisy when printed or projected in large format.

A hybrid approach wherein film is used for image capture which is then subsequently scanned to bring the image into the digital domain is an additional option, bringing together film and digital techniques. Scanning resolution is then an additional factor. Typical consumer grade labs will scan a 35mm negative at 1200 dpi, resulting in only a 2 megapixel image. In this case the resolution advantages of film disappear. For higher quality work, scans of higher resolution are available from professional photo-finishing labs, or through the personal use of a film scanner.

Photography styles

Commercial photography

The commercial photographic world is traditionally broken down to:

• Advertising photography: photographs made to illustrate a service or product. These images are generally done with an advertising agency, design firm or with an in-house corporate design team.
• Editorial photography: photographs made to illustrate a story or idea within the context of a magazine. These are usually assigned by the magazine.
• Photojournalism: this can be considered a subset of editorial photography. Photographs made in this context are accepted as a truthful documentation of a news story.
• Portrait and wedding photography: photographs made and sold directly to the end user of the images.
• Fine art photography: photographs made to fulfill a vision, and reproduced to be sold directly to the customer.

The market for photographic services demonstrates the aphorism "one picture is worth a thousand words," which has an interesting basis in the history of photography. Magazines and newspapers, companies putting up Web sites, advertising agencies and other groups pay for photography.

Many people take photographs for self-fulfillment or for commercial purposes. Organizations with a budget and a need for photography have several options: they can assign a member of the organization, hire someone, run a public competition, or obtain rights to stock photographs.

Photography as an art form

During the twentieth century, both fine art photography and documentary photography became accepted by the English-speaking art world and the gallery system. In the United States, a small handful of curators spent their lives advocating to put photography in such a system, with Alfred Stieglitz, Edward Steichen, John Szarkowski, and Hugh Edwards the most prominent among them.

Yet the aesthetics of photography is a matter that continues to be discussed regularly, especially in artistic circles. Many artists argued that photography was the mechanical reproduction of an image. If photography is authentically art, then photography in the context of art would need redefinition, such as determining what component of a photograph makes it beautiful to the viewer.

The controversy began with the earliest images "written with light": Nicéphore Niépce, Louis Daguerre, and others among the very earliest photographers were met with acclaim, but some questioned if it met the definitions and purposes of art.

Clive Bell in his classic essay "Art" states that only one thing can distinguish art from what is not art: "significant form." Bell wrote: "There must be some one quality without which a work of art cannot exist; possessing which, in the least degree, no work is altogether worthless. What is this quality? What quality is shared by all objects that provoke our aesthetic emotions? What quality is common to Sta. Sophia and the windows at Chartres, Mexican sculpture, a Persian bowl, Chinese carpets, Giotto's frescoes at Padua, and the masterpieces of Poussin, Piero della Francesca, and Cezanne? Only one answer seems possible - significant form. In each, lines and colors combined in a particular way, certain forms and relations of forms, stir our aesthetic emotions." [2].

Aesthetic realism and photography

Others have since examined if this criterion be applied to photography. This question has been examined by the aesthetic realism understanding of beauty.

An often neglected form of art in photography is that of portrait photography. A portrait is the basic rendering of someone’s likeness. What is perceived as a good portrait photographer not only wants to capture the true likeness, but also the personality of the individual. The photographer needs to be proficient not only in the workings and setting of the camera, but also needs to understand form and lighting. Great lighting and positioning can make someone appear at their best form if used correctly. Lighting and camera placement can also aid in correcting defects such as shortening a nose, making someone appear slimmer, and other visual enhancements. In this form of art, portrait photography takes on many roles, and can help create various moods that the individual is seeking.

Refrences and additional readings

• Tom Ang, Dictionary of Photography and Digital Imaging, The Essential Reference for the Modern Photographer (Argentum 2001)
• Freeman Patterson, Photography and The Art of Seeing, 1989, Key Porter Books, ISBN 1550130994.
• The Oxford Companion to the Photograph, ed. by Robin Lenman, Oxford University Press 2005
• "Image Clarity - High Resolution Photography" by John B. Williams, Focal Press 1990, ISBN 0-240-80033-8

See also

Concepts and principles

• Angle of view
• Aperture
• Color temperature
• Depth of field
• Depth of focus
• Double exposure
• Exposure
• F-number
• Film format
• Perspective distortion (caused by camera to subject distance)
• Photographic printing
• Photographic processes
• Pinhole camera
• Red-eye effect
• Rule of thirds
• Shutter speed
• Science of photography
• Zone System

Photography forms

• Documentary photography
• Fashion photography
• Fine art photography
• Gonzo photography
• Photojournalism
• Stock photography
• Street photography
• Vernacular photography

Photography techniques

• Bokeh
• Contre-jour
• Cross processing
• Cyanotype
• Digiscoping
• Film developing
• Kite aerial photography
• Macro photography
• Night photography
• Panoramic photography
• Photogram
• Push printing
• Rephotography
• Rollout photography
• Sabatier Effect
• Stereoscopy
• Sun printing
• Infrared photography
• Ultraviolet photography

Photographers and photographs

• List of photographers
• List of most expensive photographs
• List of photographs famous or noteworthy photographs
• Category:Memorable photographs

Historical

• Daguerrotype
• Timeline of photography technology

Camera and photography equipments

• camera
• dry box
• film base
• film format
• film scanner
• film stock
• filter
• flash
• movie projector
• photographic film
• photographic lens
• slide projector
• still camera
• toy camera
• tripod
• zone plate

Other

• Photograph
• Print permanence
• Camera obscura
• Composition in visual arts
• Diana camera
• Gelatin-silver process
• Gum printing
• Holography
• Lomography
• Kirlian photography
• Vignetting

External links

• Dictionary of Film and Digital Photography
• Understanding Exposure and Digital Cameras (Image Sensors)
• Depth of Field Calculators
• PhotoPermit.Org discussion on copyright law for photographers
• Instant Memories — the origins of amateur photography
• In the Eye of the Camera — The limits of photography in 19th century
• Daguerreotype to Digital: A Brief History of the Photographic Process From the State Library & Archives of Florida.

This photographic software index site has been developed to help wayward users find the information they are looking for, no matter how they are mistakenly spelled or mistyped. This site is designed to help users find photographic software information for the following query variants:

photographic	photographic sftware	photographic sotware	photographic sofware
photographic softare	photographic softwre	photographic softwae	photographic softwhare
photographic softwale	photographic softwhale	photographic sophedwale	photographic sophedwhare
photographic sophedwhale	photographic sophedware	photographic sophoware	photographic sophowale
photographic sophowhare	photographic sophowhale	photographic sophowal	photographic softwar
photographic sophowhar	photographic softwal	photographic sophowhal	photographic sophedwar
photographic sftwar	photographic sophedwal	photographic sotwar	photographic softwhar
photographic sofwar	photographic softwhal	photographic softar	photographic sophedwhar
photographic softwr	photographic sophedwhal	photographic sophowar	photographic softwaer
photographic softwrae	photographic softawre	photographic sofwtare	photographic sotfware
photographic sfotware	photographic osftware	photographic oftware	software
photographik software	phtographic software	photoglaphyk software	fotographik software
phoographic software	photoglaphik software	photgraphic software	fotoglaphik software
photoraphic software	photographyc software	photogaphic software	photographec software
fotographyc software	photogrphic software	fotographec software	photoglaphyc software
photograhic software	photoglaphec software	fotoglaphyc software	photograpic software
fotoglaphec software	photographyk software	photographc software	potographic software
fotographyk software	photogaraphic software	photogaraphyc software	photogaraphec software
photogaraphik software	fotogaraphic software	fotogaraphyc software	fotogaraphec software
fotogaraphik software	photoglaphic software	fotographic software	fotoglaphic software
photographlc software	photographci software	photograpihc software	photograhpic software
photogrpahic software	photogarphic software	photorgaphic software	photgoraphic software
phootgraphic software	phtoographic software	pohtographic software	hpotographic software
photographi software	hotographic software