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The Cajuns are an ethnic group consisting essentially of the descendants of Acadians who were expelled from Nova Scotia as a result of their refusal to swear allegiance to the British Crown and resettled in Louisiana. The word "Cajun" is a corruption of the French word acadien, after Acadia, the name of their ancestral region in Nova Scotia; the name "Cajun" was applied to them by English-speaking colonists when they settled in Louisiana.

Ancestry

Cajuns are primarily the descendants of refugees who were mainly French Canadian with some Aboriginal/Metis ancestry, especially Abenaki and Mikmaq; however other groups have contributed to the modern Cajun population. The word "Cajun" is the anglicised pronuncianion of "acadien" (Acadian in French). There is strong evidence that the word "Acadian" itself is a derivation of a Mikmaq word "cadique" meaning "a good place to set up camp". Non-Acadian French Creoles in rural areas were absorbed into Cajun communities. Many Cajuns also have ancestors who were not French. German colonists began to settle in Louisiana before the Louisiana Purchase, particularly on the "German Coast" along the Mississippi River north of New Orleans. People of Spanish origin, including many Canary Islanders have settled along the Gulf Coast, and in some cases intermarried into Cajun families. Anglo-American settlers in the region often were assimilated into Cajun communities, especially those who arrived before the English language became predominant in southern Louisiana.

One obvious result of this cultural mixture is the variety of surnames that are common among the Cajun population. Surnames of the original Acadian settlers (which are documented) have been augmented by French and even non-French family names that have merged into Cajun populations. The spelling of many family names was changed for a variety of reasons.

The Cajuns as a distinct ethnic group

It is relatively uncontroversial to consider the Cajuns a distinct ethnic group. The distinction between the Cajuns and other people in and around Louisiana is generally agreed to by both the Cajuns themselves and others. Their descent from displaced Acadians, their retention in significant measure of a unique form of the French language, and numerous distinct cultural customs distinguish them as an ethnic group. Many Cajuns, though by no means all, live in communities relatively separate from other Louisianans. Also, some identify themselves as Cajun culturally though they may have non-Acadian ancestry.

As with most other contemporary Americans, many Cajuns are assimilated into the wider society and live more in a contemporary American culture than in a distinctly Cajun culture.

History

The people who were to become the Cajuns were evicted from Nova Scotia in the period 1755 - 1763; this has become known as the Great Upheaval or Le Grand Dérangement. At the time there was a war going on in what is now Canada between France and Great Britain over the colony of New France. This war is known in the United States as the French and Indian War, though it is generally considered only one theater of the Seven Years' War.

Originally French settlers, the Acadians found themselves under British rule at the conclusion of Queen Anne's War in 1713. When war flared up four decades later, they refused to swear allegiance to Britain, wanting nothing to do with the war and wishing to remain neutral. Fears remained among the British that the Acadians might join the French in the war. British officer Charles Lawrence gave the fateful order to expel the Acadians who refused to swear allegiance to England. There was some active resistance led by Joseph Broussard aka Beausoleil. He and his fighters, supported by their Abenaki & Mikmaq allies, fought the British in small skirmishes over a period of five years. Beausoleil and his remaining supporters were captured, imprisoned and eventually released. He died soon after arriving in Louisiana, fulfilling his dream of finding a new homeland for the disposessed Acadians. The British Crown would apologize for the illegal expulsion centuries later in December 2003. This would close one of the longest open court issues in the history of the British courts. Acadian representatives first brought their grievances of the frrced disposession of land, property and livestock before the British courts in 1760.

The Acadians were scattered throughout the eastern seaboard (where some became slaves in British colonies), the Caribbean, and Europe. Families were split and put on different ships with different destinations. Many ended up in French-colonized Louisiana, mainly in the American South. France ceded the colony to Spain in 1762 just before Acadians began settling in Louisiana. The interim French officials provided land and supplies. The Spanish governor, Galvez, later proved to be hospitable, permitting the Acadians to continue to speak their language, practice Roman Catholicism -- which was also the official religion of Spain -- and otherwise pursue their livelihoods with minimal interference. Some families and individuals did travel north through the Louisiana territory to set up homes as far north as Wisconsin.

The Cajuns who settled in southern Louisiana originally did so in the area just west of what is now New Orleans, mainly along the Mississippi River. Later, they were moved by the Spanish colonial government to areas west and southwest of New Orleans where they shared the swamps and prairies with the Attakapa and Chitimacha Native American tribes. There they remained somewhat secluded until the early 1900s.

During the early part of the 20th century, attempts were made to suppress Cajun culture by measures such as forbidding the use of French in schools. Attitudes changed after World War II, during which Cajuns often served as French interpreters for American forces in France. These experiences have helped change attitudes as the century progressed.

Over the years, many Cajuns have come to live in other parts of Louisiana, and in the "Golden Triangle" area of Texas, where they followed oil field jobs in the 1970s and 1980s when the demand for petroleum related jobs in Louisiana declined as major oil companies moved their businesses to Texas.

The eastern and western Cajun regions were among the hardest hit by Hurricane Katrina on August 29, 2005 and Hurricane Rita on September 26, 2005.

Geographical distribution

Most Cajuns call Acadiana home. The Louisiana Legislature's definition of the region includes the parishes of Avoyelles, Evangeline, St. Landry, Pointe Coupee, West Baton Rouge, Calcasieu, Jeff Davis, Acadia, Lafayette, St. Martin, Iberville, Ascension, St. James, St. John The Baptist, St. Charles, Cameron, Vermilion, Iberia, St. Mary, Assumption, Terrebonne, and Lafourche. (Louisiana House Concurrent Resolution No. 496)

Cities within the region include Lafayette, New Iberia, Houma, Opelousas, Lake Charles, Thibodaux, Eunice, St. Martinville, Donaldsonville, Crowley, and Breaux Bridge.

There are also significant Cajun populations in Southeastern Texas. Cities like Orange, Beaumont, and Port Arthur are home to Cajuns whose parents and grandparents were French speakers, and who share the same culinary traditions as their neighbors in Southwestern Louisiana. Mardi Gras celebrations and King Cakes are common in the region, regardless of the community's or individual's religious affiliations.

Culture

Language

Main article: Cajun French

It is usually presumed that Cajun French is mainly derived from Acadian French as it was spoken in the French colony of Acadia (now located in the Maritime provinces of Canada), though the dialect also had influences from Quebec French, Haitian French and Haitian Creole, as well as European French. Cajun is a dialect of French, but differs from Parisian or Metropolitan French in some areas of pronunciation and vocabulary. As of 2004, most of the older generations in Acadiana are bilingual, having grown up with French in the home and having learned English in school. There is also a distinct Cajun accent in English. Cajuns tend to have a slight pause after each syllable. Also, the last consonant of a syllable is usually elided into the start of the next one.

In recent years the number of speakers of Cajun French has diminished considerably. However, efforts are being made to reintroduce the language among the youngest generations. CODOFIL (the Council for the Development of French in Louisiana) was established during the late 1960s and continues to teach a version of French somewhere between the older Cajun dialect and Metropolitan French. Today, Cajun areas of Louisiana often form partnerships with Acadians in Canada who send French teachers to reteach the language in schools.

Some differences

• Some rare speakers still use the Acadian feature where the same pronoun is used for first person singular and plural; je parle in French is the same in Cajun, but nous parlons in French is je parlons (in Cajun). Most speakers however use on for 1st plural.
• [a] is pronounced [ɑ] with tongue towards the back of the buccal cavity.
• [r] is pronounced as a palatal flap, much like the short rolled "r" in Spanish or the "dd" in the word "ladder".
• [k],[t] is pronounced [tʃ] in front of yod.
• [d] pronounced [dʒ], as in the word Acadian.
• Whereas Standard French has levelled out the old distinction between [wa] and [we] in favor of [wa], some Cajun speakers preserve the old [we] in some words such as étoile 'star'. The number of words with this preservation is generally not as high as in Québecois French.

Over the years, Cajun French speakers have sometimes incorporated English vocabulary (such as truck) directly into the language instead of adopting the neologisms of the Académie française. This can be disconcerting to non-natives.

As French has declined as an everyday language among Cajuns, the spoken English of Cajuns retains Acadian French influences that mark a distinct dialect within Acadiana. Culinary words and terms of endearment such as "chèr" (dear) (pronounced "shah" or "sheh") and "nonc" (uncle) are still heard among otherwise English-speaking Cajuns.

Religion

Cajuns are predominantly Roman Catholic. However, Protestant and Evangelical Christian denominations have made inroads among Cajuns. Religious observances such as Shrove Tuesday (Mardi Gras), Lent, and Holy Week are integral to many Cajun communities.

Arts

Music, including Zydeco

Cajun music is originally rooted in the music of the French-speaking Catholics of Canada, but not all Cajun music today is sung in the Cajun French Language. In earlier years the fiddle was the predominant instrument, but gradually the accordion has come to share the limelight. (The introduction of the accordion can be traced back to German settlers, who are more typically identified with eastern and central Texas. Though they were concentrated in Texas, many settled as far east as New Orleans, that path taking them directly through Acadiana.) There are many cajun musician practice jams in Louisiana.

Some folks argue that Cajun music is always dance music -- with or without words. With Cajun music's heavy syncopation, it would be easy to make that claim. However, so much of the culture is expressed in the lyrics that one cannot separate them from the music. Whatever one might say about it, Cajun music was created for a party: either a small get-together on the front porch or a foot-stomping crowd intent on having a good time. Cajun and Zydeco have influenced American popular music for many years, especially country music. Cajun sounds embellish recordings by Jimmy C. Newman, Alan Jackson, Hank Williams, Sr. and Jr., Doug Kershaw, Sammy Kershaw (cousins from the area), Gundula Krause and countless others.

The Cajun dance is usually a two-step or a waltz, while Zydeco, further described below, is a syncopated two-step or jitterbug. A Cajun dancer will cover the dance floor while the Zydeco dancer will do all his dancing in one spot. Cajun music artists include DL Menard, Dewey Balfa, Belton Richard, Blind Uncle Gaspard and Harry Choates. The younger generation includes Balfa Toujours, Steve Riley and the Mamou Playboys, and the all-teen group La Bande Feufollet.

Important Cajun musicians by decade include the following:

1920s–30s: Joseph Falcon and Cleoma Breaux; Leo Soileau and Mayeuse Lafleur or Moise Robin; Wayne Perry; Amédé Ardoin; Dennis McGee and Sady Courville; Angelas LeJeune; Breaux Brothers; Hackberry Ramblers; Rayne Bo Ramblers; J.B. Fusilier; Lawrence Walker

1940s–50s: Harry Choates; Happy Fats; Iry LeJeune; Nathan Abshire; Lawrence Walker; Aldus Roger and the Lafayette Playboys; Lionel Cormier and the Sundown Playboys; Lee Sonnier and the Cajun All Stars; Chuck Guillory

1950s–60s: Austin Pitre and Milton Molitor; Badeaux and the Louisiana Aces; Adam Hebert and the Country Playboys; Alphee Bergeron, Shirley Bergeron and the Country Playboys; Nathan Abshire and the Pinegrove Boys; Robert Bertrand; Sidney Brown and the Traveler Playboys; Doris Matte; Joe Bonsall and the Orange Playboys; Belton Richard and the Musical Aces

1970s: Balfa Brothers; Octa Clark and Hector Duhon; Bois Sec Ardoin and Canray Fontenot; Touchet Brothers; Camey Doucet

In the early 1950s, Zydeco gradually developed from the music of the Creoles in southwest and south central Louisiana. At an earlier period, Creole and Cajun music were quite similar, but after World War II, Louisiana Creole music took off into another direction, incorporating elements of the blues and rock and roll. The accordion replaced the fiddle and electric instruments, drums, and corrugated metal washboard (called a frottoir) were added. Zydeco artists include Buckwheat Zydeco, Beau Jocque, Clifton Chenier, and Rockin' Sidney.

Swamp pop, another music genre from Acadiana, came about in the mid 1950s. With the Cajun dance and musical conventions in mind, nationally popular rock, pop, country, and R&B songs were re-recorded, sometimes in French. Several swamp pop songs have started as a local Louisiana record which performed well on the national record charts. One producer of early swamp pop, Huey Meaux, is a legendary figure in the history of rock and roll. Artists include Zachary Richard, Dale & Grace, Tommy McLain, Clint West, Warren Storm, and Rod Bernard.

See also: Iko Iko

Painting and sculpture

A few local artists have gained international recognition for their unique visions.

George Rodrigue of Lafayette has taken his vision of the Blue Dog from a studio in Lafayette, Louisiana to the White House and galleries around the world. Rodrigue is also the owner of a local restaurant.

Floyd Sonnier of Scott, Louisiana drew upon his technique called "traditional realism" to render pieces that highlighted the history of the area and people. His subjects were usually rustic; farmers, tools, trees, nature, and old homes. He graduated from what is now the University of Louisiana at Lafayette, and also worked as a commercial artist.

Susan Nugent Clark is based in New Iberia. She paints and draws using a variety of mediums, focusing on Louisiana subjects and recreating old photos. Her art has been displayed across the US.

Pat Duet is a Raceland, Louisiana artist. Her main claim to fame is the "Cypress Santa" she carves from the "knees" of cypress trees. She has been featured in national exhibits and television appearances.

Dolores Hebert Legendre was born and raised on Bayou Lafourche in Lockport, LA. She remembers and cherishes in her paintings the sceneries and lifestyles of Cajun life. Her works in oils, watercolors, and pen and ink drawings depict the bayou scenes, plantation homes, sugar mills, shrimp boats, and Creole cottages of today and yesterday. She was a student of the late France M. Folse of Raceland, LA.

Literature

Though many stories were passed down from generation to generation verbally, some were written down for posterity. Some were written down by non-Cajuns. Some are simply made up children's stories to reconnect the newest generations with their culture and past.

The Henry Wadsworth Longfellow version of the Acadian Upheaval, "Evangeline" is probably the best known telling of the story. Historians will argue about Longfellow's accuracy, but it is the most visible and best known account of the time available. The fictionalized heroine of the poem is honored with a statue and historical recreation near St. Martinville, Louisiana.

Mary Alice Fontenot wrote children's stories featuring characters that Cajun children could find in their back yard. "Clovis the Crawfish" (her most enduring character), went on adventures with his friends "Paillasse Poule D'Eau", "Christophe Cricket", and "Petit Papillon", among others. She also wrote numerous newspaper articles, historical pieces, and other books for adults as well as children.

Jude Roy writes short stories about Cajun life, past and present. Roy's stories have been published in The Southern Review and other compilations, and have been read on National Public Radio.

Nola Mae Ross writes stories and books primarily about the southwestern Louisiana parishes of Calcasieu and Cameron. These include historical accounts of Hurricane Audrey and the infamous Jean Lafitte.

Kate Chopin wrote about the Creoles and Cajuns (Acadiens). Her most well-known novel is probably "The Awakening" (1899). There is also a fine book of short stories called "Bayou Folk" (1894). Apparently, the work of Ms. Chopin was rediscovered in the 1970s. "The Awakening" is now considered a fine piece of feminist literature.

Food

Main article: Cajun cuisine

To paraphrase an old saying, Cajuns live to eat. Outside Louisiana the distinctions between Cajun and Louisiana Creole cuisine have been blurred. However, Creole dishes tend to be more continental, although using local produce. Cajun victuals are more spicy hot and tend to be more hearty. But outside Louisiana the distinctions are academic.

The cornerstone of Cajun cuisine is "the trinity": onion, celery, and bell pepper, finely diced. This is similar to the use of the mire poix in traditional French cooking, which is finely diced onion, celery, and carrot. With this base, flavors are layered and concentrated. Inexpensive and readily available ingredients, seasoned and served over plain white rice, provided the fuel that early Cajun settlers needed for survival. Many such dishes are still served in homes and restaurants today.

High on the list of favorites of Cajun cooking are the stews called gumbos. The word originally meant okra, which is one of the principal ingredients of a gumbo, used as a thickening agent. A filé gumbo is thickened with sassafras leaves, a practice borrowed from the Choctaw Indians. The backbone of a gumbo is the roux, which is made of flour, toasted until well toasted, and fat or oil, not butter as with the French. The classic gumbo is made with chicken and the Cajun sausage called andouille, but the ingredients all depend on what is available at the moment.

Another Cajun classic is the variety of jambalayas that is available at any time. The only certain thing that can be said about them is that they contain rice and almost anything else. Usually, however, you'll find green peppers, onions, celery and hot chile peppers. Anything else is optional.

Boudin is a type of spicy sausage made from a pork, pork liver, rice, garlic and green onion along with other spices. It is widely available by the link or pound, from butcher shops. Boudin is usually made daily as it does not keep well for very long, even frozen. Saltine crackers are a popular accessory.

Rice proved to be a valuable commodity in early Acadiana. With an abundance of water, rice could be grown practically anywhere in the region, and grew wild in some areas. Rice became the predominant starch in the diet, easy to grow, store and prepare. Rice helped the Acadians thrive in south Louisiana. The oldest rice mill in operation in the United States, the Conrad Rice Mill, is located New Iberia.

The food of the Cajuns had to meet certain requirements. Many households consisted of 8-12 people, so farming was a requirement, regardless of the head of household's other vocations. Whoever did the cooking had to prepare food for a lot of hard working people everyday. Rice became the easiest, cheapest, and tastiest way to do that. Cajun cuisine grew up around the ability to stretch what little meat, game, or other protein they had.

And, of course, to sop up the juices what would a meal be without cornbread? The corn pone one hears about in the South is derived from an Algonquian dish made with corn (maize) flour, salt and water. Wheat and flour was hard to find in many areas, and did not last long in the south Louisiana humidity. This made the cornbread a necessity.

In most cases, whatever is found on a Cajun table is what a Cajun found in the field or water a short time before and a short distance away, like crawfish or gator or rabbit or chicken or waterfowl. The cuisine is simple, lively, hearty and plentiful. It is representative of the early farmers and trappers who supplied most of the food for the Cajun people. Crawfish, with their affinity for freshwater and mud, are often raised in flooded rice fields, giving the fields the dual purposes of growing plants for starch and animals for protein.

The crawfish boil is a celebratory event where Cajuns boil crawfish, potatoes, onions and corn over large propane cookers. Oranges, lemons, and small muslin bag contiaining a mixture of bay leaves, mustard, cayenne pepper and other spices, commonly known as "crab boil" or "crawfish boil" are added to the water for seasoning. The results are then dumped onto large, newspaper-draped tables and then covered in spice blends, Zatarain's, Louisiana Fish Fry and Tex Joy are popular comercial blends. Cocktail sauce, mayonnaise and Tabasco are common condiments. The seadfood is scooped onto large trays or plates and eaten by hand.

Attendees are encouraged to "suck the head" of a crawfish by separating the abdomen of the crustacean and sucking out the abdominal fat/juices. Some traditions urge particpants to kiss the tail section of the crawfish before eating it. This has lead to a rather vulgar T-shirt that features a picture of a crawfish with the slogan, "Kiss My Ass, Suck My Head, Eat Me." The more common phrase is "Pinch my tail, suck my head."

Spiciness plays a major role in modern Cajun/Creole cuisine. Despite the distinction, residents of the Cajun/Creole region value Tabasco or the slightly different "Louisiana Hot Sauce" and their contributions to the meal. Small, pickeled, hot, green peppers in vinegar with a shaker-top are also a staple of Cajun/Creole meals. Tradtionally cajun cuisine is well seasoned, but not as hot as it is widely reputed to be.

Celebrations

Many people in Cajun Country are prone to have a party "at the drop of a hat". Any get-together at home with a few friends, night on the town with a larger group, or a full blown festival involving thousands of people is greeted with enthusiasm. Nearly every village, town, and city of any size has a yearly festival, celebrating an important part of the local economy. Clarence's info on Louisiana Festivals lists most of the major festivals. Examples are the Duck Festival in Gueydan, The Rice Festival in Crowley, the Sugarcane festival in New Iberia, the Zydeco Festival in Opelousas and the Cracklin Festival in Port Barre. The Crawfish Festival in Breaux Bridge and Festival International in Lafayette are two of the most popular festivals, and attract visitors from around the world. Smaller local festivals are very popular, and are produced with great fanfare. The majority of festivals include a fais-do-do or street dance, usually to a live local band. Crowds at these festivals can range from a few hundred to over 100,000.

In Texas, the Winnie Rice Festival and other celebrations often highlight the Cajun influlence in Southeast Texas. As opposed to the more Western view of Texas, Southeast Texas has a very Cajun flavor, with many residents sporting French-derived names and anscestories.

Outside Louisiana, a major Cajun/Zydeco festival was held annually in Rhode Island, which does not have a sizable Cajun population but is home to many Franco-Americans of Québecois and Acadian descent. It featured Cajun culture and food, as well as authentic Louisiana musical acts both famous and unknown, drawing attendance not only from the strong Cajun/Zydeco music scene in Rhode Island, Connecticut and New York City, but from all over the world. In recent years the festival became so popular that there are now several such large summer festivals near the Connecticut-Rhode Island border: The Great Connecticut Cajun and Zydeco Music & Arts Festival, The Blast From The Bayou Cajun and Zydeco Festival, and the Rhythm & Roots Festival.

Mardi Gras underscores the Cajun belief system. The Catholic church figures heavily in planning almost everything and many of the traditions of Acadiana are based on the church calendar. Ash Wednesday marks the beginning of Lent in the Catholic church, a 40 day period of fasting and reflection which ends Easter Sunday. So Mardi Gras is the last chance to have a huge party.

The traditional "Fat Tuesday" celebration in the rural areas of Acadiana is nothing like the debauchery and craziness that typifies New Orleans and other metropolitan celebrations. It centers around the courir (translated: to run). A group of people, usually on horseback, will approach a farmhouse and ask for something for the community gumbo pot. Often, the farmer or his wife will allow the riders to have a chicken, if they can catch it. The group then puts on a show, comically attempting to catch the chicken set out in a large open area. Songs are sung, jokes are told, and little skits are acted out. When and if the chicken is caught, it is duly added to the pot at the end of the day. The "Courir de Mardi Gras" held in the small town of Mamou has become well known.

Institutions

• The University of Louisiana at Lafayette
• Louisiana State University, Agricultural and Mechanical

See also

• French in the United States
• Islenos
• Languages in the United States
• List of Cajuns

Cajun (rocket)

Cajun is the name of an American sounding rocket. The first Cajun was launched on June 20th, 1956.

• http://www.astronautix.com/lvs/cajun.htm

Sources

• Extracted data from 1990 US census.
• http://www.census.gov/population/socdemo/ancestry/Acadian-Cajun.txt

Documentary films

• Spend it All ( 1971, colour) Director: Les Blank with Skip Gerson
• Hot Pepper ( 1973, colour ) Director: Les Blank
• J'ai Été Au Bal, by Les Blank, Chris Strachwitz & Maureen Gosling; Narrated by Barry Jean Ancelet and Michael Doucet (Brazos Films). Louisiana French and Zydeco music documentary [1].

External links

• CajunCulture.com: "The Encyclopedia of Cajun Culture"
• RealCajunRecipes.com
• [2]: "Cajun Music mp3: Hadacol it Something"
• Clarence's Info on Cajun and Zydeco Music and Culture

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